THE CANON OF THE OLD TESTAMENT

Who is like the wise man and who knows the interpretation of a matter? A man's wisdom illumines him and causes his stern face to beam.[1]

In the first year of his reign, I, Daniel, observed in the books the number of the years which was revealed as the word of the LORD to Jeremiah the prophet for the completion of the desolations of Jerusalem, namely, seventy years.[2]

T

he term canon is derived from a Greek word kanōn, meaning 'straight rod, straight edge, and ruler.' As applied to literature, canon has come to mean those writings which conform to the rule or standard of divine inspiration and authority. In the Hebrew Scriptures there are thirty-nine books which are considered by the Jews to be canonical (or biblical, as these terms—canonical and biblical—can be used interchangeably; note: Bible – Greek: Biblia, from Byblos - 'the books'). The Apostolic church (first/early church) and the Protestant churches since the days of the Reformation similarly accept thirty-nine books comprising the Old Testament. The Roman church adds to these fourteen other books of equal authority with the rest. Then,

WHAT MAKES A BOOK OF SCRIPTURE CANONICAL?

The Tripartite Division of the Hebrew Canon/Bible:

1. Law   2. Prophets   3. Writings

Two authoritative editions/compilations of the Hebrew canon/Bible are the Masoretic Text and the Septuagint (Greek version – LXX = 70 also called the Alexandrian Canon).

The Masoretic Text (MT) is arranged as follows:

        I.            The Torah (or Pentateuch or first five books of Moses or books of law): Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy.

      II.            The prophets (Hebrew - Nᵉbiʾīm) in the following order: former prophets – Joshua, Judges, 1&2 Samuel, and 1&2Kings; latter also major prophets – Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel and twelve minor prophets: Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi.

    III.            The writings (Hebrew – Kethūbīm, Greek – Hagiographa or Holy Writings): poetry and wisdom books – Psalms, Proverbs, Job; the Rolls or Megilloth – Song of Solomon, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther; historical books – Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah, and 1&2Chronicles. A total of thirty-nine (39) books.

The Septuagint/Greek Version (LXX)/Alexandrian Canon:

        I.            The books of law: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy.

      II.            The books of history: Joshua, Judges, Ruth, 1&2Samuel, 1&2 Kings, 1&2Chronicles, 1&2Esdras (the first being apocryphal, the second being canonical/biblical Ezra), Nehemiah, Tobit, Judith, and Esther.

    III.            The books of poetry and wisdom: Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon, Wisdom of Solomon, Wisdom of Sirach (Ecclesiasticus).

    IV.            The books of prophecy: the minor prophets – Hosea, Amos, Micah, Joel, Obadiah, Jonah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi; the major prophets – Isaiah, Jeremiah, Baruch, Lamentations, Epistle of Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel (including Susanna, Bel and the Dragon, and the Song of the Three Holy Children).

      V.            The supplemental books of history: 1&2Maccabees.

In general, the Latin Vulgate (Roman Bible) follows the same order as the Septuagint, except that 1&2Esdras equal our Ezra and Nehemiah, and the Apocryphal parts 3&4Esdras are placed after the New Testament books, as is also the Prayer of Manasseh. Also, in the Vulgate the major prophets are placed before the minor prophets. Note, the Protestant/English Bible follows the Vulgate in order, but in content it follows the Masoretic Text/Bible. Earlier divisions of the Masoretic Text (MT) consisted of the same content as the thirty-nine books listed above, but arranged in only twenty-four books. Hence, 1&2Samuel were counted as one book; likewise 1&2Kings and 1&2Chronicles. The twelve minor prophets were also counted as one book, and Ezra and Nehemiah formed a single unit.

Josephus[3], who wrote near the end of the first century AD, gives evidence of a twenty-two book canon:

          I.            The books of Moses – Genesis to Deuteronomy.

        II.            The prophets after Moses (in thirteen books) – Joshua, Judges-Ruth, Samuel, Kings, Chronicles, Ezra-Nehemiah, Esther, Isaiah, Jeremiah-Lamentations, Ezekiel, Daniel; the twelve minor prophets (as a single unit), and possibly Song of Solomon.

      III.            The remaining four documents comprise hymns to God and practical precepts to men – Job, Psalms, Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes.

Essentially, whether thirty-nine books, or twenty-four, or twenty-two, the basic divisions of the Hebrew canon/Bible have remained the same. Ruth was separated from Judges, likewise Lamentations from Jeremiah because of the Jewish liturgical year, along with three other units: Canticles (Song of Solomon) read at Passover (in the first month); Ruth read at Pentecost (in the third month); Lamentations read on the ninth of Ab (fifth month); Ecclesiastes read at the Feast of Tabernacles (seventh month); and Esther read at the Feast of Purim (twelfth month). From the list above, the Kethūbīm (the writings) was by no means fixed and rigid.

The earlier description of the third division by the prologue of Ecclesiasticus as "others who have followed in the steps of the Prophets" and "other books of our fathers" is somewhat vague. Moreover, the New Testament never specifies any other books besides the Psalms as comprising the third division of the Old Testament (Lk.24:44 speak of the "Law of Moses and the Prophets and the Psalms"). A passage from Psalms 82 is spoken of as being "written in your law" (Jn.10:34). The time of composition of the books in the Kethūbīm is not pre-Christian in its origin as drawn from the later MT division (of thirty-nine books).

The Antilegomena (the books spoken against):

Controversy noted in some Jewish circles during the second century AD relative to the canonicity of Canticles, Ecclesiastes, Esther, Proverbs, and Ezekiel. The disciples of Shammai in the first century BC contested the canonicity of Ecclesiastes, whereas those of Hillel upheld it.

The criticism: A look at the Pros and Cons:

             I.            Song of Solomon: based on the passages which speak of physical attractiveness in bold and erotic language/imagery (if taken in a crassly literal way). But the allegorical interpretations of Hillel identified Solomon with Jehovah and the Shulamite with Israel. Christian exegetes identify Solomon with Christ and the Bride to the Church, thereby giving richer insight into the love relationship between the Saviour and His redeemed. (See Song 1:2, 3:1, 4:5 & 9, 5:10-11, 7:1-10).

           II.            Ecclesiastes: based upon its alleged pessimism, Epicureanism (sensualism), and denial of the life to come. But the work is to be interpreted in the light of the author’s special technique and purpose, i.e., the wisdom of a matured, solemn, and philosophical king; who has transitioned from youthful innocence and wanton abandon to penitential maturity.

         III.            Esther: that the name of God does not appear in it. However, it is clear that the unavoidable manifestations of divine providence are working through every circumstance to deliver the Jewish race from the greatest threat to its existence ever faced in its pre-Christian history (Est.4:15-17).

        IV.            Proverbs: centred in a few apparently contradictory precepts, such as:

Do not answer a fool according to his folly,
         Or you will also be like him.
    Answer a fool as his folly deserves,
         That he not be wise in his own eyes.[4]

   Perhaps a quizzical way of saying know when [and to whom] to give correction and when not to.

            V.            Ezekiel: disagreements of detail between the latter-day temple and the ritual of the last ten chapters (Ezek.38-48) and those of the Mosaic tabernacle (Exo.35-40) and the Solomonic temple (2Chron.2-7). Rebuttal suggests a still future temple, rather than to the second temple erected by Zerubbabel (Jn.14:1-6, Rev.21-22).

The oldest catalogue of the books of the Old Testament (OT) canon now in existence is the list of Bishop Melito of Sardis (ca.AD 170); after going to the Orient to investigate the number and order of the books of the OT:

             I.            Five of Moses – Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. Joshua, Judges, Ruth, four of Kingdoms, two of Chronicles, Psalms of David, Proverbs of Solomon (which is also Wisdom), Ecclesiastes, Canticles, and Job.

           II.            The Prophets – Isaiah, Jeremiah, and the Twelve in one book, Daniel, Ezekiel, and Ezra.

         III.            Note: (a) Lamentations is omitted – probably subsumed under Jeremiah; (b) Nehemiah likewise – probably included with Ezra; (c) Esther is omitted altogether; (d) with the possible exception of the term Wisdom (which could refer to the Wisdom of Solomon) no book of the Apocrypha is included.

A.      The Apocrypha[5] (dating proposed by Oesterley[6]):

                                  I.            Pre-Maccabean: 1Esdras (c.300 BC); Tobit (c.250 BC); the Hymn in the Song of the Three Holy Children (c.200 BC); Wisdom of Sirach (Ecclesiasticus, c.200 BC).

                                II.            Maccabean: the Prayer in the Song of the Three Holy Children (c.160 BC); Judith (c.150 BC); the Rest of Esther (c.140-130 BC); Bel and the Dragon (c.150 BC).

                              III.            Post-Maccabean: 1Maccabees (90-70 BC); 2Maccabees (50 BC); the History of Susanna (?); the Wisdom of Solomon (40 AD); Baruch (70 AD or after); 2Esdras (100 AD); Prayer of Manesses (?).

                             IV.            A second list of works which have never been included in the Scriptures, whether Jewish or Christian, is given below (in Part B). These consist of writings which were either never of canonical/biblical status, or which were considered as representative of individual or group viewpoints. This list is by no means exhaustive:

B.      Pseudepigrapha (false writing/title):

The Book of Jubilees (200-150 BC); the Testimony of the Twelve Patriarchs (?); the Psalms of Solomon (100-50 BC); 3Maccabees (?); 4Maccabees (?); the Assumption of Moses (1-50 AD); Adam and Eve (?); the Martyrdom of Isaiah (?); the Book of Enoch (?); 2Baruch (?); the Sibylline Oracles (?), to name a few.

The Question of the Canonicity of the Apocrypha:

The Roman Catholic, Greek Orthodox communions, and Protestant scholars of liberal persuasion speak of an "Alexandrian Canon" (Septaugint/Greek Bible) as having equal claims to validity with those of the so-called "Palestinian Canon."

Arguments in favour of the Apocrypha:

        I.            The early versions (of the Bible) contained them. This however is only partially true. The ancient Aramaic Targums did not recognize them nor did the earliest form of the Syriac Peshitta contain a single apocryphal book. Jerome, the great translator of the Scriptures into Latin, did not recognize the Apocrypha as being of equal authority with the books of the Hebrew canon/Bible. The authority of the Apocrypha is resting upon only one ancient version, the Septuagint. Later translations (such as the Itala, Coptic, Ethiopic, and later Syriac) are derived from it. Even the apocryphal books in the Septuagint maintain a rather uncertain existence. Note: the Codex Vaticanus (B) lacks 1&2Maccabees (canonical, according to Rome). The Alexandrinus (A) contains three "noncanonical" apocryphal books: 1Esdras and 3&4Maccabees, suggesting that the fourteen apocryphal books accepted by the Roman church are by no means substantiated by the testimony of the great uncials (manuscripts) of the fourth and fifth centuries.

      II.            The presence of apocryphal books in the LXX is argued by some as indicative of the existence of a so-called Alexandrian Canon/Bible. It is not certain however, that all the books contained in the LXX were considered canonical even by the Alexandrian Jews themselves. Note: Philo of Alexandria[7] (first century AD) quotes frequently from the canonical books of the "Palestinian Canon," but never quotes once from any of the apocryphal books. It is possible that some Alexandrian Jews did not accept this Alexandrian Canon, while others did. Also, Aquila’s Greek Version[8] was accepted by the Alexandrian Jews in the second century AD, even though it did not contain the Apocrypha. It appears that the Alexandrian Jews chose to include in their edition of the OT both the books they considered canonical and also those they considered "ecclesiastical" (valuable and edifying though not inerrant). These "subcanonical" books were preserved and utilized along with the canonical.

    III.            Apocryphal books and other pseudepigraphical works were discovered among the sacred writings of the Dead Sea Scrolls.[9] It is from this discovery that support is given to the view that subcanonical works may be preserved and utilized along with canonical. At least two apocryphal books are represented – Ecclesiasticus and Tobit. These fragments also agree with the eleventh-century manuscript (MS) of Ecclesiasticus found in the Cairo Geniza[10] back in the 1890s. Pseudepigraphical works found among the Dead Sea Scrolls include: the Testament of Levi in Aramaic, (also in Hebrew), and the book of Enoch (fragments from ten different manuscrips – MSS). Surely no one could seriously contend that the straightlaced Qumran sectarians considered all these apocryphal and pseudepigraphical works canonical/biblical simply because they cherished copies of them.

    IV.            Appeal is often made to the fact that the New Testament (NT) usually employs the LXX translation in its quotations from the OT. Since the LXX contains the Apocrypha, the NT apostles must have recognized the authority of the entire LXX. This line of argument is irrelevant to the issue at hand, since none of these sources is even alleged to be from the fourteen books of the Roman Apocrypha. Few extant sources quoted from include: Apocalypse of Elias and a Latin fragment of Assumption of Moses. Only in one instance, the quotation from (Enoch 1:9 in Jude 14-16)[11] has the source quoted from survived. There are quotations from pagan Greek authors too in the NT: Acts 17:28 – Paul quotes from Aratus’ Phaenomena,[12] line 5; in 1Corinthians 15:33 he quotes from Menander’s comedy, Thais.[13] Surely this does not indicate that these quotations establish the canonicity of either Aratus or Menander. Mere quotations do not necessarily establish canonicity. It is inconceivable that the NT authors could have considered the fourteen books of the Roman Catholic Apocrypha canonical and never once quoted from or alluded to any of them.

      V.            The early church Fathers quote from these books (the Apocrypha) as authoritative. It is more correct to say some of the early Christian writers appear to do so, while others do not. Those in favour are the writers of 1Clement and Epistle of Barnabas,[14] and most notably Augustine of Hippo.[15] This is still presumptive as Jude could quote Enoch as containing a true account of one ancient text without necessarily endorsing the whole book of Enoch as canonical/biblical. The ambiguous 'advocacy' of the Apocrypha on the part of Augustine at the Council of Carthage (AD 397), when challenged, resorted to a passage in 2Maccabees to settle an argument, but replied that his case must be weak if he had to resort to a book not in the same category as those accepted by the Palestinian Jews. The revered Athanasius (died 365 AD), regarded by both East and West as the champion of Trinitarian orthodoxy, discussed in his Thirty-ninth Letter the "particular books and their number, which are accepted by the church." Stating in paragraph 4, "There are, then, of the Old Testament twenty-two books in number," the same as those found in the MT in approximately the same order as in the Protestant/English Bible. Paragraphs 6 and 7 states that the subcanonical or extrabiblical or intertestamental books (the Apocrypha) are not included in the canon/Bible, but merely "appointed to be read." The Eastern Church later concurred with the Western in the acceptance of the Apocrypha (2 Trullan Council at Constantinople in 692 AD). Others expressed misgivings about some of the fourteen books and in Jerusalem in 1672 the Greek Church narrowed down the number of canonical Apocrypha to four: (1) Wisdom (2) Ecclesiasticus (3) Tobit (4) Judith.

THE TESTS OF CANONICITY (or biblical authority)

Inadequate Tests: (in support of the canonicity of the Apocrypha):

        I.            J. G. Eichhorn (1780) – Age as a test of canonicity; hence the exclusion of all books after Malachi. This theory does not account for older works[16] like the Book of Jashar (Jos.10:13 & 2Sam.1:18) and the Book of the Wars of the Lord (Num.21:14) not accounted authoritative.

      II.            F. Hitzig (ca.1850) – Hebrew language; however, Ecclesiasticus, Tobit, and 1Maccabees were composed in Hebrew yet rejected as canonical. Also, Aramaic chapters of Daniel and Ezra are acceptable.

    III.            G. Wildeboer – Conformity to the Torah; he introduced other criteria:

a)      Canonical books had to be written in Hebrew or Aramaic.

b)      Discuss ancient history – Ruth or Chronicles.

c)       Address new order of things – Ezra or Nehemia.

d)      Assigned to a famous person of ancient times – Solomon, Samuel, Daniel or Job.

e)      Of national interest – Esther.

Wilderbore’s criteria are both contradictory and bewildering. How can we be sure that the Records of Nathan the prophet (2Chron.9:29) or Isaiah’s Acts of Uzziah (2Chron.26:22) or Jeremiah’s Lamentation for Josiah (2Chron.35:25) were not in conformity to the Torah? The problem with criterion (e) is that many pseudepigraphical works, like Enoch, Lemech, the Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs, the Testament of Adam, et al, highlight famous men of old, and it is not certain that none of them was originally composed in Aramaic or Hebrew.[17]

Only True Test of Canonicity:

The testimony of God the Holy Spirit confirms the infallibility of His own Word. By faith, this testimony was accepted as divine truth and through supernatural manifestation of God to His people. As the apostle Paul instructs:

Be diligent to present yourself approved to God as a workman who does not need to be ashamed, accurately handling the word of truth.[18]

Also,

All Scripture is inspired by God and profitable for teaching, for reproof, for correction, for training in righteousness; so that the man of God may be adequate, equipped for every good work.[19]

Apostle Peter also informs us:

But know this first of all, that no prophecy of Scripture is a matter of one's own interpretation, for no prophecy was ever made by an act of human will, but men moved by the Holy Spirit spoke from God.[20]

In the general Epistle of Hebrews we are told:

God, after He spoke long ago to the fathers in the prophets in many portions and in many ways, in these last days has spoken to us in His Son, whom He appointed heir of all things, through whom also He made the world.[21]

Moses, the scribe appointed by God to receive the Commandments and the Law taught these instructions to the Israelites. These records include: "the book of the generations of Adam" (Gen.5:1); Israel’s defeat of the Amalekites, written "in a book as a memorial" (Exo.17:14); commandments given to Moses "which I [God] have written for their instruction" (Exo.24:12) and "written by the finger of God" (Exo.31:18) or by continual rehearsal (Deu.6:6-9 & 11:18-20). E. J. Young posits: "We may, however, follow our Lord, who placed the imprimatur [official licence] of His infallible authority upon the books of the Old Testament."[22] While liberal scholars and even the Roman Church with self-contradictory affirmation: "The church is the mother of the Scripture," may seek canonical authority apart from God the fact remains—the Scriptures bear the mark of God, as Sovereign God took the initiative to reveal and produce a written record of that revelation through human agents.

Ecclesiastical synods or councils did not impart canonicity to a single page of Scripture; they simply acknowledged the divine inspiration of religious documents which were inherently canonical from the time they were first composed, and formally rejected other books for which canonicity had been falsely claimed. Note Dr. Luke’s comments on the many accounts (written) about the life and death of Christ Jesus:

Inasmuch as many have undertaken to compile an account of the things accomplished among us, just as they were handed down to us by those who from the beginning were eyewitnesses and servants of the word, it seemed fitting for me as well, having investigated everything carefully from the beginning, to write it out for you in consecutive order, most excellent Theophilus; so that you may know the exact truth about the things you have been taught.[23]

DIVISIONS OF THE PROTESTANT BIBLE (from the Masoretic Text/Hebrew Canon)

A.      OLD TESTAMENT

                                  i.            PENTATEUCH (Torah/Law): Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy.

                                 ii.            HISTORY: Joshua, Judges, Ruth, 1&2Samuel, 1&2Kings, 1&2Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther.

                               iii.            POETRY & WISDOM: (Kethūbīm – the writings; Gk. Hagiographa – Holy Writings): Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon.

                               iv.            MAJOR PROPHETS: Isaiah, Jeremiah, Lamentations, Ezekiel, Daniel.

                                v.            MINOR PROPHETS: Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi.

B.      NEW TESTAMENT

                                  i.            HISTORY: (4 Gospels) Matthew, Mark, Luke, John; Acts.

                                 ii.            PAULINE EPISTLES: Romans, 1&2Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, 1&2Thessalonians, 1&2Timothy, Titus, Philemon.

                               iii.            GENERAL EPISTLES: Hebrews, James, 1&2Peter, 1&2&3John, Jude.

                               iv.            APOCALYPTIC: Revelation.

The Apocrypha: Exact dating is unconfirmed, but an approximate time of their writing is given here, after the order proposed by Oesterley:

A.      PRE-MACCABEAN

                                  i.            1Esdras: either of two books, the first mainly a compilation from Chronicles, Nehemiah, and Ezra; the second book is a record of angelic revelation (in the Latin Vulgate – the canonical books of Ezra and Nehemiah), c.300 BC.

                                 ii.            Tobit: pious Israelite living during the Babylonian captivity. This book, given Tobit’s name, tells his story, c.250 BC.

                               iii.            The Hymn in the Song of the Three Holy children: the hymn of praise sung by the three Hebrew boys when they realized they were delivered from the fiery furnace, including a brief account of the angel who met them in the furnace, c.200 BC.

                               iv.            Ecclesiasticus (Wisdom of Sirach): containing moral and practical maxims (short, pithy statements expressing general truths or rules of conduct), c.200 BC.

B.      MACCABEAN[24]

                                  i.            The Prayer in the Song of the Three Holy Children: a lengthy passage that appears after Dan.3:23 in Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Bibles, as well as the Greek Septaugint translation. It is the penitential prayer of Azariah while the three youths were in the fiery furnace, c.160 BC.

                                 ii.            Judith: a rich Israelite widow who saved the town of Bethulia from Nebuchadnezzar’s army by seducing and besieging general Holofernes and cutting off his head while he slept, c.150 BC.

                               iii.            The Rest of Esther: consisting of verses in the Septuagint text of the book of Esther that are not in the Hebrew text, c.140-130 BC.

                               iv.            Bel and the Dragon: containing additional stories of Daniel, concerned mainly with his refusal to worship Bel (another name for Baal—male fertility god whose cult was widespread in ancient Phoenician (modern Lebanon) and coastal plains of Syria – including Tyre and Sidon) and his slaying of a mythical dragon, c.150 BC.

C.      POST-MACCABEAN

                                  i.            1Maccabees: describes the struggle of the Jews for religious, cultural, and political independence against the Seleucid King Antiochus IV Epiphanes and his successors, who were Greeks and sympathized with their Hellenization of Judah, 90-70 BC.

                                 ii.            2Maccabees: focuses on the Jews' revolt against Antiochus IV Epiphanes and concludes with the defeat of the Syrian general Nicanor in 161 BC by Judas Maccabaeus, the hero of the work, 50 BC.

                               iii.            The History of Susanna: tells the story of a Hebrew wife named Susanna of Babylon, falsely accused of adultery by two elders but saved by sagacity (keen mental discernment and good judgment) of Daniel. Included in the book of Daniel (as chapter 13) by the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches.

                               iv.            The Wisdom of Solomon: ascribed to Solomon, containing meditations on wisdom, AD 40.

                                v.            Baruch (scribe of Jeremiah[25]): some scholars propose that it was written during or shortly after the period of the Maccabees. In the Latin Vulgate, the King James Bible, and many other versions, the Letter of Jeremiah is appended to the end of the book of Baruch as a sixth chapter, AD 70 or after.

                               vi.            2Esdras: a record of angelic revelations (in the Latin Vulgate, the combined books of Ezra and Nehemiah), AD 100.

                             vii.            Prayer of Manasses (also rendered Manasseh): consisting of a penitential prayer put into the mouth of Manasseh, king of Judah.

Pseudepigrapha: [26] a second list of works[27] never included in the Hebrew or Christian Scriptures is given below. These consist of writings which were either never of canonical status, or which were considered as representative of individual or group viewpoints.

                                 i.            The Book of Jubilees: sometimes called the Lesser Genesis (Leptogenesis) or the Book of Division by the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. It reworks material found in the biblical books of Genesis and Exodus in the light of concerns of some 2^nd century BC Jews, 200-150 BC.

                               ii.            The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs: comprises the dying commands of the twelve sons of Jacob.

                              iii.            The Psalms of Solomon: a group of eighteen psalms (religious songs or poems) that are attributed to Solomon, 100-50 BC.

                             iv.            3Maccabees: actually this book has nothing to do with the Maccabees or their revolt against the Seleucid Empire. It tells the story of persecution of the Jews under Ptolemy IV Philopator (222-205 BC), some decades before the Maccabee uprising. The book is given this name because of similarities between this book and the stories of martyrdom of Eleazar and the Maccabeean youths in 2Maccabees.

                               v.            4Maccabees: a homily or philosophic discourse praising the supremacy of pious reason over passion.

                             vi.            The Assumption of Moses (otherwise called the Testament of Moses): is in twelve chapters and purports to be secret prophecies Moses revealed to Joshua before passing leadership of the Israelites to him, AD 1-50.

                            vii.            Adam and Eve: part of a larger work known as the Forgotten Books of Eden. The First Book of Adam and Eve details the life and times of Adam and Eve after they were expelled from the garden to the time that Cain kills his brother Abel. The Second Book of Adam and Eve details the life and times of Cain and his twin sister Luluwa when they went away to the time that Enoch was taken by God.

                          viii.            The Martyrdom of Isaiah: this is the first part of the book which is called in full the Ascension of Isaiah. The first part (chapters 1-5) recounts and expands on the events of 2Kings chapter 21; highlighting the events leading to the execution of Isaiah.

                             ix.            The Book of Enoch (also 1Enoch): ascribed to Enoch, the great-grandfather of Noah. A short section of this book is quoted in the NT (Letter of Jude 1:14-15). The first part of 1Enoch describes the fall of the Watchers, the angels who fathered the Nephilim. The remainder of the book describes Enoch’s visits to Heaven in the form of travels, visions and dreams, and his revelations. The book is divided into five sections.

                               x.            2Baruch (also known as the Syriac Apocalypse of Baruch, Jeremiah’s scribe): this book portrays Baruch as a prophet in his own right. It has a similar style to the writings attributed to Jeremiah: a mix of prayer, lamentation, and visions. Although Baruch writes of Nebuchadnezzar’s sack of Jerusalem in 586 BC, it is currently believed as having been written in reaction to the fall of Jerusalem in 70 AD, but before 135 AD.

                             xi.            The Sibylline Oracles: Sibyl – a woman in ancient times supposed to utter the oracles and prophecies of gods. This is a collection of oracles belonging to the ancient Roman state and used for guidance by magistrates and others.

SYNOPSIS ("For YOU have magnified YOUR word according to all YOUR name"[28])

Almost the entire Old Testament was written in Hebrew during the thousand years of its composition. But a few chapters in the prophecies of Ezra and Daniel and one verse in Jeremiah were written in a language called Aramaic. This language became very popular in the ancient world and actually displaced many other languages. Aramaic even became the common language spoken in Israel in Jesus' time, and it was likely the language He spoke day by day. Some Aramaic words were even used by the Gospel writers in the New Testament.

The New Testament, however, was written in Greek. This seems strange, since you might think it would be either Hebrew or Aramaic. However, Greek was the language of scholarship during the years of the composition of the New Testament from 50 to 100 AD. The fact is that many Jews could not even read Hebrew anymore, and this disturbed the Jewish leaders a lot! So, around 300 BC a translation of the Old Testament from Hebrew into Greek was undertaken, and it was completed around 200 BC. Gradually this Greek translation of the Old Testament, called the Septuagint, was widely accepted and was even used in many synagogues. It also became a wonderful missionary tool for the early Christians, for now the Greeks could read God's Word in their own tongue.

A note on KJV: The Authorized Version, or King James Version, has been the Standard English translation for English-speaking Protestants for almost four hundred years. It has had a profound influence on the literature of the past 300 years. From which language was the KJV translated? Here is how it came about: 54 college professors, preachers, deans and bishops ranging in ages from 27 to 73 were engaged in the project of translating the KJV. To work on their masterpiece, these men were divided into six panels: two at Oxford, two at Cambridge, two at Westminster. Each panel concentrated on one portion of the Bible, and each scholar in the panel was assigned portions to translate. As guides the scholars used a Hebrew Text of the Old Testament, a Greek text for the New. Some Aramaic was used in each. They consulted translations in Chaldean, Latin, Spanish, French, Italian and Dutch. And, of course, they used earlier English Bibles—at least six, including William Tyndale's New Testament, the first to be printed in English. So what language did they use? Everything that was available.

Primary Sources

Archer, Gleason l. A Survey of Old Testament Introduction. 2nd ed. 1974. 3rd ed. 1994. Chicago: Moody Press, 1964.

Young, Edward J. "The Canon of the Old Testament." Revelation and the Bible: Contemporary Evangelical Thought. Ed. Carl F.H. Henry. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1958 / London: The Tyndale Press, 1959.

Your word is truth (Jn.17:17)

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[1] Ecclesiastes 8:1 (New American Standard Bible. Unless otherwise stated, all biblical references are taken from this version of the Bible).

[2] Daniel 9:2. (See for ref. Jer.25:11-12 & 29:10).

[3] Titus Flavius Josephus (37 – c. A.D. 100), also called Joseph ben Mattathias was a 1st-century Romano-Jewish historian and hagiographer of priestly and royal ancestry who recorded Jewish history, with special emphasis on the 1st century AD and the First Jewish–Roman War which resulted in the Destruction of Jerusalem in 70 AD. He has been credited by many as recording some of the earliest history of Jesus Christ outside of the gospels, this being an item of contention among historians. Josephus was a law-observant Jew who believed in the compatibility of Judaism and Greco-Roman thought, commonly referred to as Hellenistic Judaism. His most important works were The Jewish War (c. 75 AD) and Antiquities of the Jews (c. 94 AD).The Jewish War recounts the Jewish revolt against Roman occupation (66–70). Antiquities of the Jews recounts the history of the world from a Jewish perspective for a Roman audience. These works provide valuable insight into 1st century Judaism and the background of Early Christianity.

[4] Proverbs 26:4-5.

[5] Originally a Greek term meaning "those having been hidden away."

[6] OESTERLEY, WILLIAM OSCAR EMIL (1866-1950), English Semitics scholar. Oesterley, who was born in Calcutta, was ordained a clergyman and taught Hebrew and Old Testament exegesis at King's College, London, from 1926. In his work he endeavored to demonstrate talmudic influence on New Testament form and content. Among his published writings are: The Jewish Background of Christian Liturgy (1925); (with T.H. Robinson) A History of Israel (vol. 2; From 586 B.C.E. to A.D. 135; 1932 and many reprints); Introduction to the Books of the Old Testament (with T.H. Robinson, 1934) and An Introduction to the Books of the Apocrypha (1935); The Jews and Judaism During the Greek Period (1941). Oesterley also wrote commentaries to Psalms (1939; repr. 1962) and Proverbs (1929), A Fresh Approach to the Psalms (1937) and a metric translation of the Song of Songs, Ancient Hebrew Poems (1938). Together with G.H. Box he wrote an outline of Jewish literature, A Short Survey of the Literature of Rabbinical and Mediaeval Judaism, 1920.

[7] Philo of Alexandria, a Hellenized Jew also called Judaeus Philo, is a figure that spans two cultures, the Greek and the Hebrew. When Hebrew mythical thought met Greek philosophical thought in the first century B.C.E. it was only natural that someone would try to develop speculative and philosophical justification for Judaism in terms of Greek philosophy. Thus Philo produced a synthesis of both traditions developing concepts for future Hellenistic interpretation of messianic Hebrew thought, especially by Clement of Alexandria, Christian Apologists like Athenagoras, Theophilus, Justin Martyr, Tertullian, and by Origen. He may have influenced Paul, his contemporary, and perhaps the authors of the Gospel of John (C. H. Dodd) and the Epistle to the Hebrews (R. Williamson and H. W. Attridge). In the process, he laid the foundations for the development of Christianity in the West and in the East, as we know it today. Philo’s primary importance is in the development of the philosophical and theological foundations of Christianity. 

[8] Translator of the canonical Scriptures from Hebrew into Greek. He was by birth a Gentile from Pontus, and is said by Epiphanius to have been a connection by marriage of the emperor Hadrian and to have been appointed by him about the year 128 AD to an office concerned with the rebuilding of Jerusalem as "Ælia Capitolina." At some unknown age he joined the Christians, but afterward left them and became a proselyte to Judaism. According to Jerome he was a disciple of Rabbi Akiba. The Talmud states that he finished his translations under the influence of R. Akiba and that his other teachers were Eliezer ben Hyrcanus and Joshua ben Hananiah. It is certain, however, that Aquila's translation had appeared before the publication of Irenæus' "Adversus Hæreses"; i.e., before 177 AD.

[9] "Probably the Dead Sea Scrolls have had the greatest Biblical impact. They have provided Old Testament manuscripts approximately 1,000 years older than our previous oldest manuscript. The Dead Sea Scrolls have demonstrated that the Old Testament was accurately transmitted during this interval. In addition, they provide a wealth of information on the times leading up to, and during, the life of Christ."—Dr. Bryant Wood, archaeologist, Associates for Biblical Research. The Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered in eleven caves along the northwest shore of the Dead Sea between the years 1947 and 1956. The area is 13 miles east of Jerusalem and is 1300 feet below sea level. The mostly fragmented texts are numbered according to the cave that they came out of. They have been called the greatest manuscript discovery of modern times.

[10] The 1896 discovery of the Cairo Genizah was one of the greatest Jewish treasures ever found. It has provided the world with some of the most important documents of the medieval Middle East.

[11] "It was also about these men that Enoch, in the seventh generation from Adam, prophesied, saying, "Behold, the Lord came with many thousands of His holy ones, to execute judgment upon all, and to convict all the ungodly of all their ungodly deeds which they have done in an ungodly way, and of all the harsh things which ungodly sinners have spoken against Him."These are grumblers, finding fault, following after their own lusts; they speak arrogantly, flattering people for the sake of gaining an advantage" (Jude 14-16).

[12] "as even some of your own poets have said, 'For we also are His children' " (Acts 17:28). Aratus (Greek: ca.315 BC/310 BC – 240 BC) was a Greek didactic poet. His major extant work is his hexameter poem Phaenomena ("Appearances"), the first half of which is a verse setting of a lost work of the same name by Eudoxus of Cnidus. It describes the constellations and other celestial phenomena. The second half is called the Diosemeia ("Forecasts"), and is chiefly about weather lore. Although Aratus was somewhat ignorant of Greek astronomy, his poem was very popular in the Greek and Roman world, as is proved by the large number of commentaries and Latin translations, some of which survive.

[13] "Bad company corrupts good morals" (1Cor.15:33). Menander (Greek: Menandros; ca.342–291 BC), Greek dramatist, the best-known representative of Athenian New Comedy, was the son of well-to-do parents; his father Diopeithes is identified by some with the Athens general and governor of the Thracian Chersonese known from the speech of Demosthenes De Chersoneso. He presumably derived his taste for comic drama from his uncle Alexis. Of this comedy, the Thais, Professor Mahaffy remarks that perhaps it was the most brilliant of Menander's plays.

[14] The Epistles of Clement are two letters ascribed to Pope Clement I. His only genuine extant writing is his letter, 

1Clement (c.96), to the church at Corinth, in response to a dispute in which certain presbyters of the Corinthian church had been deposed. The Second Epistle of Clement (2Clement) is believed to be written by an anonymous author – one who was neither the author of 1Clement nor Clement of Rome. The Epistle of Barnabas is a Greek epistle containing twenty-one chapters, preserved complete in the 4th century Codex Sinaiticus where it appears at the end of the New Testament. It is traditionally ascribed to Barnabas who is mentioned in the Acts of the Apostles, though some ascribe it to another Apostolic Father of the same name, a "Barnabas of Alexandria", or simply attribute it to an unknown early Christian teacher.

[15] Augustine of Hippo (Nov.13, 354 – Aug.28, 430), also known as Augustine, St. Augustine, St. Austin,

St. Augoustinos, Blessed Augustine, or St. Augustine the Blessed, was Bishop of Hippo Regius (present-day Annaba, Algeria). He was a Latin-speaking philosopher and theologian who lived in the Roman Africa Province. His writings were very influential in the development of Western Christianity.

[16] The following is a full list of other books mentioned in the Bible but not included as individual books in the list of canonical/biblical books. These are generally considered "lost books of the OT," i.e., books referenced in the Hebrew Bible of which no copies are known to exist: Josh.10:13 - Book of Jashar; Num.21:14 - Book of the Wars of the Lord; 1Kgs.11:41 - Book of the acts of Solomon; 15:23 & 31 - Book[s] of the Chronicles of the Kings of Judah [and Israel]; 1Chr.29:29 - Chronicles of Samuel the seer, Chronicles of Nathan the prophet, and Chronicles of Gad the seer; 2Chr.9:29 - Records of Nathan the prophet, Prophecy of Ahijah the Shilonite, and Visions of Iddo the seer; 12:15 - Records of Shemaiah the prophet and of Iddo the seer; 13:22 - Treatise of the prophet Iddo; 20:34 - Annals of Jehu the son of Hanani; 26:22 - Acts of Uzziah; 27:7 - Book of the Kings of Israel and Judah; 32:32 - Vision of Isaiah the prophet; 33:19 - Records of the [seer] Hozai; and 35:25-27 - Lamentation for Josiah, Law of the LORD, and Book of the Kings of Israel and Judah; Neh.12:23 & Est.2:23 - Book of the Chronicles; and 10:2 - Book of the Chronicles of the Kings of Media and Persia.

[17] In Ezra 4:6-8 mention is made of a "letter… written in Aramaic and translated from Aramaic" to King Artaxerxes; a record of Artaxerxes’ decree is given in 7:12-26; in the first chapter of the book Daniel we read that chosen Hebrew youths are compelled by King Nebuchadnezzar’s degree to learn the "literature and language of the Chaldeans" (1:4). These references highlight the fact that Aramaic, the language of the Babylonians, was both spoken and written by Israelites (certainly by those writers of canonical/biblical books) during their period of captivity in Babylon. In short, we know that Hebrew (for the most part) and Aramaic were the original languages used in writing the OT. The four Gospels constitute eye-witness accounts (with at times striking variations in details of similar events) while most of Acts is from the diary/travel journal of Dr. Luke. It is clear therefore that the test of canonicity does not follow the uniform criteria as proposed by Wilderbore, et al.

[18] 2Timothy 2:15.

[19] Ibid., 3:16-17.

[20] 2Peter 1:20-21.

[21] Hebrews 1:1-2.

[22] Edward J. Young, "The Canon of the Old Testament," Carl F.H. Henry, ed., Revelation and the Bible: Contemporary Evangelical Thought. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1958 / London: The Tyndale Press, 1959. 405.

[23] Dr. Luke’s 'Introduction' to his epistle, addressed to a Theophilus, a likely patron of the doctor; Lk.1:1-4.

[24] Maccabean (adj) from Maccabees (n) – refers to members or followers of the family of the Jewish leader Judas Maccabaeus. The Books of the Maccabees (4 books of Jewish history and theology), of which the first and second are in the Apocrypha and features Judas Maccabaeus. Latin: Macccabaeus, an epithet – descriptive phrase expressing a quality/characteristic – applied to Judas (Maccabaeus), perhaps from Hebrew – maqqebet - 'hammer' – by association with the religious revolt led by Judas against the tyranny of Antiochus IV Epiphanes – ruler of the Seleucid dynasty in Syria (175-164 BC). He sacrificed a pig in the Jewish temple about 165 BC in honour of the pagan Greek god, Zeus, described in the book of Daniel as the "abomination of desolation," (Dan.9:26-27; 11:21-24, 29-45). Antiochus IV Epiphanes is described as a type of prophetic Antichrist whom the Maccabees violently resisted.  

[25] Jeremiah 36:1-4.

[26] Are falsely attributed works/texts whose claimed authorship is unfounded; a work, simply, whose real author attributed it to a figure of the past.

[27] This is by no means an exhaustive list as there are other such works too numerous to mention.

[28] In the KJV this latter part of Psalm 138:2 is rendered: "for thou hast magnified thy word above all thy name."

OOW

2011